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Theoretical studies indicate that most supernovae are triggered by one of two basic mechanisms: the sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion in a white dwarf, or the sudden gravitational collapse of a massive star's core. Huei Sears is a sixth-year Physics PhD candidate at Northwestern University. Her research is on the host galaxies of long gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) from 12.5 billion years ago. Long GRBs are thought to come from the deaths of the most massive stars, and so she is trying to describe their host galaxies to see what GRBs might tell us about massive stars. What is a supernova?

High redshift searches for supernovae usually involve the observation of supernova light curves. These are useful for standard or calibrated candles to generate Hubble diagrams and make cosmological predictions. Supernova spectroscopy, used to study the physics and environments of supernovae, is more practical at low than at high redshift. [48] [49] Low redshift observations also anchor the low-distance end of the Hubble curve, which is a plot of distance versus redshift for visible galaxies. [50] [51] The sight of a supernova explosion might be awful and mesmerizing at the same time, as the beauty of destruction is not alwayseuphoric, yet these humbling events are the celestial distributors of seeds, the explosive pillars of creation. This Chandra X-ray photograph shows Cassiopeia A (Cas A, for short), the youngest supernova remnant in the Milky Way. (Image credit: NASA/CXC/MIT/UMass Amherst/M.D.Stage et al.) Type I supernovas A supernova is the explosion of a massive star. There are many different types of supernovae, but they can be broadly separated into two main types: thermonuclear runaway or core-collapse. This first type happens in binary star systems where at least one star is a white dwarf, and they're typically called Type Ia SNe. The second type happens when stars with masses greater than 8 times the mass of our sun collapse in on themselves and explode. There are many different subtypes of each of these SNe, each classified by the elements seen in their spectra. What happens after a supernova?Next, gradually heavier elements build up at the center, and the star forms onion-like layers of material, with elements becoming lighter toward the outside of the star. Once the star's core surpasses a certain mass (called the Chandrasekhar limit), it begins to implode. For this reason, these Type-II supernovae are also known as core-collapse supernovae. A version of the periodic table indicating the origins – including stellar nucleosynthesis of the elements. (Photo Credit: Cmglee/Wikimedia Commons)

A small proportion of type Ic supernovae show highly broadened and blended emission lines which are taken to indicate very high expansion velocities for the ejecta. These have been classified as type Ic-BL or Ic-bl. [64] In a Type Ia supernova, the supernova process happens when the white dwarf in the binary accretes too much mass (anything over about 1.44 times the mass of our sun). The exact cause of the explosion is still an active area of research, but many think that the extra mass makes the core of the white dwarf heat up, which leads to too much pressure and energy inside the star that it is no longer able to support, and the star violently explodes. The second type of supernovae occurs at the end of a single massive star’s lifetime. It is important to note that not all stars “go supernova”; only thosewith at least five times the mass of our sun. After the star has burnt up its reserves, the nuclear fusion in the core comes to a standstill, and the star’s mass begins to flow into its core. Supernova of a supermassive star (Photo Credit: ESO/VISTA/J. Emerson/Wikimedia Commons)In the case of a massive star's sudden implosion, the core of a massive star will undergo sudden collapse once it is unable to produce sufficient energy from fusion to counteract the star's own gravity, which must happen once the star begins fusing iron, but may happen during an earlier stage of metal fusion. Abnormally bright type Ia supernovae occur when the white dwarf already has a mass higher than the Chandrasekhar limit, [91] possibly enhanced further by asymmetry, [92] but the ejected material will have less than normal kinetic energy. This super-Chandrasekhar-mass scenario can occur, for example, when the extra mass is supported by differential rotation. [93] For other uses, see Supernova (disambiguation). SN 1994D (bright spot on the lower left), a type Ia supernova within its host galaxy, NGC 4526 Either type of supernova can be so bright as to briefly outshine an entire galaxy. But Type II supernovas are particularly interesting because they release not only light but also enormous numbers of neutrinos. In fact, the emission of neutrinos can start a little bit ahead of the explosion itself, explains Kate Scholberg, an astronomer at Duke University. More recently, astronomers have been getting excited about a newly discovered supernova in the Pinwheel Galaxy. Designated SN 2023ixf and located some 21 million light-years from Earth the new supernova is attracting the attention of both professional and amateur astronomers worldwide who are turning their telescopes and cameras toward the spot to observe this somewhat rare phenomenon. Additional resources