Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages

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Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages

Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages

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Tanner, Spielmann & Lucas 2013, pp. 562–566, "The first Norian (Revueltian) rhynchosaur: Bull Canyon Formation, New Mexico, U.S.A." by Justin A. Spielmann, Spencer G. Lucas and Adrian P. Hunt. Apex of a deltopectoral crest (a projection on which the deltopectoral muscles attach) located at or more than 30% down the length of the humerus (upper arm bone) a b Cashmore, D.D.; Mannion, P.D.; Upchurch, P.; Butler, R.J. (2020). "Ten more years of discovery: revisiting the quality of the sauropodomorph dinosaur fossil record". Palaeontology. 63 (6): 951–978. Bibcode: 2020Palgy..63..951C. doi: 10.1111/pala.12496. S2CID 219090716. Dinosaurs belong to a group known as archosaurs, which also includes modern crocodilians. Within the archosaur group, dinosaurs are differentiated most noticeably by their gait. Dinosaur legs extend directly beneath the body, whereas the legs of lizards and crocodilians sprawl out to either side. [30]

MacLeod, Norman; Rawson, Peter F.; Forey, Peter L.; etal. (1997). "The Cretaceous–Tertiary biotic transition". Journal of the Geological Society. London: Geological Society of London. 154 (2): 265–292. Bibcode: 1997JGSoc.154..265M. doi: 10.1144/gsjgs.154.2.0265. ISSN 0016-7649. S2CID 129654916. Gunther, Robert Theodore, ed. (1968) [First printed in Oxford 1945]. Life and Letters of Edward Lhwyd. Early Science in Oxford. Vol.XIV. Preface by Albert Everard Gunther (Reprinted.). London: Dawsons of Pall Mall. ISBN 978-0-7129-0292-2. LCCN 22005926. OCLC 43529321 . Retrieved November 4, 2019.

Dinosaur crafts and activities

Prior to the dinosaur renaissance, dinosaurs were mostly classified using the traditional rank-based system of Linnaean taxonomy. The renaissance was also accompanied by the increasingly widespread application of cladistics, a more objective method of classification based on ancestry and shared traits, which has proved tremendously useful in the study of dinosaur systematics and evolution. Cladistic analysis, among other techniques, helps to compensate for an often incomplete and fragmentary fossil record. [69] [70] Reference books summarizing the state of dinosaur research, such as David B. Weishampel and colleagues' The Dinosauria, made knowledge more accessible [71] and spurred further interest in dinosaur research. The release of the first and second editions of The Dinosauria in 1990 and 2004, and of a review paper by Paul Sereno in 1998, were accompanied by increases in the number of published phylogenetic trees for dinosaurs. [72] Soft tissue and molecular preservation An Edmontosaurus specimen's skin impressions found in 1999 Concave articular surface for the fibula of the calcaneum (the top surface of the calcaneum, where it touches the fibula, has a hollow profile)

New revelations were supported by an increase in dinosaur discoveries. Major new dinosaur discoveries have been made by paleontologists working in previously unexplored regions, including India, South America, Madagascar, Antarctica, and most significantly China. Across theropods, sauropodomorphs, and ornithischians, the number of named genera began to increase exponentially in the 1990s. [21] As of 2008, [update] over 30 new species of dinosaurs were named each year. [66] At least sauropodomorphs experienced a further increase in the number of named species in the 2010s, with an average of 9.3 new species having been named each year between 2009 and 2020. As a consequence, more sauropodomorphs were named between 1990 and 2020 than in all previous years combined. [67] These new localities also led to improvements in overall specimen quality, with new species being increasingly named not on scrappy fossils but on more complete skeletons, sometimes from multiple individuals. Better specimens also led to new species being invalidated less frequently. [66] Asian localities have produced the most complete theropod specimens, [68] while North American localities have produced the most complete sauropodomorph specimens. [67]

Bell, P.R. (2014). "A review of hadrosaur skin impressions". In Eberth, D.; Evans, D. (eds.). The Hadrosaurs: Proceedings of the International Hadrosaur Symposium. Bloomington: Princeton University Press. pp.572–590. Randall, Lisa (2015). Dark Matter and the Dinosaurs: The Astounding Interconnectedness of the Universe. New York: HarperCollins: Ecco. ISBN 978-0-06-232847-2. LCCN 2016427646. OCLC 962371431. Ornithopoda (various sizes; bipeds and quadrupeds; evolved a method of chewing using skull flexibility and numerous teeth)

Main article: Feathered dinosaurs Various feathered non-avian dinosaurs, including Archaeopteryx, Anchiornis, Microraptor and Zhenyuanlong a b Sereno, Paul C. (1999). "The Evolution of Dinosaurs". Science. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science. 284 (5423): 2137–2147. doi: 10.1126/science.284.5423.2137. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 10381873. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 5, 2018 . Retrieved November 8, 2019. Schweitzer, M.H.; Zheng, W.; Cleland, T.P.; Bern, M. (2013). "Molecular analyses of dinosaur osteocytes support the presence of endogenous molecules". Bone. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 52 (1): 414–423. doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2012.10.010. ISSN 8756-3282. PMID 23085295. However, researchers do not agree regarding whether these structures share a common origin between lineages (i.e., they are homologous), [251] [252] or if they were the result of widespread experimentation with skin coverings among ornithodirans. [253] If the former is the case, filaments may have been common in the ornithodiran lineage and evolved before the appearance of dinosaurs themselves. [246] Research into the genetics of American alligators has revealed that crocodylian scutes do possess feather-keratins during embryonic development, but these keratins are not expressed by the animals before hatching. [254] The description of feathered dinosaurs has not been without controversy in general; perhaps the most vocal critics have been Alan Feduccia and Theagarten Lingham-Soliar, who have proposed that some purported feather-like fossils are the result of the decomposition of collagenous fiber that underlaid the dinosaurs' skin, [255] [256] [257] and that maniraptoran dinosaurs with vaned feathers were not actually dinosaurs, but convergent with dinosaurs. [245] [256] However, their views have for the most part not been accepted by other researchers, to the point that the scientific nature of Feduccia's proposals has been questioned. [258]There were three general dinosaur faunas in the Late Cretaceous. In the northern continents of North America and Asia, the major theropods were tyrannosaurids and various types of smaller maniraptoran theropods, with a predominantly ornithischian herbivore assemblage of hadrosaurids, ceratopsians, ankylosaurids, and pachycephalosaurians. In the southern continents that had made up the now-splitting supercontinent Gondwana, abelisaurids were the common theropods, and titanosaurian sauropods the common herbivores. Finally, in Europe, dromaeosaurids, rhabdodontid iguanodontians, nodosaurid ankylosaurians, and titanosaurian sauropods were prevalent. [122] Flowering plants were greatly radiating, [123] with the first grasses appearing by the end of the Cretaceous. [125] Grinding hadrosaurids and shearing ceratopsians became very diverse across North America and Asia. Theropods were also radiating as herbivores or omnivores, with therizinosaurians and ornithomimosaurians becoming common. [123] a b Schweitzer, Mary H.; Wittmeyer, Jennifer L.; Horner, John R.; Toporski, Jan K. (2005). "Soft-Tissue Vessels and Cellular Preservation in Tyrannosaurus rex". Science. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science. 307 (5717): 1952–1955. Bibcode: 2005Sci...307.1952S. doi: 10.1126/science.1108397. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 15790853. S2CID 30456613. Glut, Donald F. (1997). Dinosaurs: The Encyclopedia. Foreword by Michael K. Brett-Surman. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-89950-917-4. LCCN 95047668. OCLC 33665881. Lloyd, G.T.; Davis, K.E.; Pisani, D.; Tarver, J.E.; Ruta, R.; Sakamoto, M.; Hone, D.W.E.; Jennings, R.; Benton, M.J. (2008). "Dinosaurs and the Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 275 (1650): 2483–2490. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2008.0715. PMC 2603200. PMID 18647715. Sternberg, Charles Mortram (1966) [Original edition published by E. Cloutier, printer to the King, 1946]. Canadian Dinosaurs. Geological Series. Vol.54 (2nded.). Ottawa: National Museum of Canada. LCCN gs46000214. OCLC 1032865683.



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